The first mouse iPSCs were obtained from fibroblasts in the Yamanaka laboratory, using retroviral transfection of the pluripotency genes ( Oct3/4, Sox2, c-Myc, and Klf4) ( Takahashi and Yamanaka, 2006). Induced pluripotent stem cells can be generated by genetic reprogramming of somatic cells, and can thus provide a “best alternative” to ESCs. However, since obtaining ESCs in this way is therefore associated with manipulations of embryos, using such human ESCs (hESCs) is difficult for ethical reasons. One source of ESCs is the cells of the inner cell mass of the embryo at the blastocyst stage ( Evans and Kaufman, 1981). These two types of PSC are largely similar to each other: gene expression profiles, morphology, telomerase activity, etc. There are two main types of PSCs: embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). Since these cells have unlimited proliferative potential, it is possible to maintain them in culture under certain conditions for many years. pluripotent stem cells are characterized by their long-term ability to self-renew and their potential for differentiation into any type of cell characteristic of the three germ layers. The most suitable source of NSCs in vitro is from cultures of pluripotent stem cells (PSCs). Finally, NSCs have a promising potential application in regenerative medicine by providing the opportunity for cell therapy of neurodegenerative diseases. Neural stem cell cultures can also be used as test systems for the screening of suitable drug candidates and for studying their effects on human nervous system cells. In addition, artificially obtained NSCs provide the opportunity to model various diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) and to study their pathogenesis and the methods for their treatment. Since the study of human embryonic neurogenesis is difficult for ethical reasons, the need to develop various models of in vitro neurogenesis is increasing. The in vitro generation of neural stem cells (NSCs) is a very attractive direction in terms of studying the processes of neural induction and the differentiation of progenitors into different types of neurons. It should be particularly useful for researchers who are beginning investigations in this area of cell biology. This review is intended to summarize the knowledge accumulated, to date, by workers in this field. However, there are many different protocols for the induction and differentiation of NSCs, and these result in a wide range of neural cell types. The most convenient and acceptable source of NSCs is pluripotent stem cells (embryonic stem cells or induced pluripotent stem cells). Such cells also have an application in regenerative medicine. Neural stem cells (NSCs) provide promising approaches for investigating embryonic neurogenesis, modeling of the pathogenesis of diseases of the central nervous system, and for designing drug-screening systems. 3Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia.2Center for Precision Genome Editing and Genetic Technologies for Biomedicine, Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, Russia.1Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia.
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